Publication year
2011
Citation Title
Influence of mother, father, and child risk on parenting and children's cognitive and social behaviors.
Journal Name
Child Development
Journal Volume
82
Issue Number
6
Page Numbers
1985-2005
DOI
10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01667.x
Summary
The families of nationally-representative children born in the United States in 2001 were surveyed, interviewed, and observed at 4 time points from birth to kindergarten entry to examine the influence of maternal, paternal, and child risk factors (poverty, unemployment, ability to speak English, emotional/physical health, antisocial behavior) on children's cognitive and social behaviors. Maternal risk was directly and indirectly linked to cognitive outcomes through maternal sensitivity. Paternal risk was only indirectly linked through maternal sensitivity.
Key Findings
Maternal risk (presence of risk factors) at nine months is directly and negatively associated with children's cognition at 24 months.
Paternal risk is indirectly related to children's cognition at 24 months through lower levels of maternal supportiveness at 24 months.
Both maternal and paternal risk are only indirectly associated with positive and negative child social behaviors; higher risk mothers and fathers are more likely to have children with fewer positive and more negative behaviors due to the reduced quality of mother-child interactions.
Implications for Military Professionals
Facilitate support groups for military families to help them cope with the unique stressors of military life and the stressors associated with parenting
Collaborate with organizations connected with military parents to reduce family risk factors that may negatively affect child social and cognitive outcomes
Implications for Program Leaders
Disseminate information regarding normative social and cognitive development throughout the developmental stages and resources for military parents with concerns about their child's development
Provide military parents courses on how to increase parental supportiveness when parenting young children
Implications for Policy Makers
Continue to support programs that enhance military families parenting skills
Recommend education for service providers working with military families regarding the unique risk factors associated with military service that may negatively influence children's cognitive and social development
Methods
Registered birth data from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) vital statistics system were used to select the sample.
Parent interview, resident father questionnaires, child assessment, and observation of parent-child interactions were used to collect data on a nationally representative sample of children born in 2001.
Data were collected at 9, 24, and 48 months after the child's birth and at kindergarten entry.
Participants
Participants included 4,200 children and their parents; no gender information was reported.
The average number of children per household was 1.8 (SD = 2.08), and the majority of children in the sample were White (61%).
On average mothers were 29.6 years old and most had less than a high school education (36%); the average age of fathers was 32 years and most were college educated (37%).
Limitations
Several important risk factors (e.g., legal involvement) were not measured, which could influence the results.
Only biological mothers and fathers were assessed; thus, these findings may not apply to children in other kinds of home environments.
Observational data was only collected of maternal behavior; paternal behavior was not assessed, limiting what can be understood regarding parenting behaviors influence on children's development.
Avenues for Future Research
Conducted a longitudinal study to examine how the influence of risk factors on child development changed over time
Examine the unique risk factors in military families that could influence child development
Continue to examine how fathers' risk influences child developmental outcomes
Focus
Civilian
Target Population
Population Focus
Abstract
The association among mothers', fathers', and infants' risk and cognitive and social behaviors at 24 months was examined using structural equation modeling and data on 4,200 on toddlers and their parents from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort. There were 3 main findings. First, for cognitive outcomes, maternal risk was directly and indirectly linked to it through maternal sensitivity whereas paternal risk was only indirectly related through maternal sensitivity. Second, for social behaviors, maternal and paternal risks were indirectly linked through maternal sensitivity and father engagement. Third, maternal and paternal levels of risk were linked to maternal supportiveness whereas mothers' and children's risk were linked to paternal cognitive stimulation. Implications are that policy makers must take into account effects of mothers', children's, and fathers' risk on young children's functioning.
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