The Development of Anger and Hostile Interactions

Since the publication of the first and second editions of this volume (Lewis & Haviland, 1993; Lewis & Haviland-Jones, 2000), research on emotions has grown to the point where emotion is a major focus in the sixth edition of the Handbook of Child Psychology (Eisenberg, 2006). Here we trace the normative development of anger in infants and children, with the thesis that anger develops and comes to be regulated in the context of transactions with the social environment (Parke, 1994). Also, individual differences in abilities/capacities and developmental changes contribute to this transaction and shed light on important processes (Bugenthal & Grusec, 2006). The literature reviewed here includes studies on infants’ and children’s expression of anger; their reactions to and appraisal of anger; their regulation of and/or coping with anger in themselves and others; and their understanding of anger, including display rules. We also consider socialization processes relevant to anger, and both adaptive and maladaptive aspects of anger and angry interactions.